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| EVIDENCE FOR EFFICACY
(HUMAN DATA) |
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Clinical Trials
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Review of literature indicates that pregnancy
associated nausea and vomiting may be helped by ginger but more
study needed
Aikins 1998 |
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Post-surgixcal nausea and vomiting were as
effectively treated by 2 gm ginger as 1.25 mg of droperidol in a
trial with 120 patients randomly divided
Visalyaputra 1998 |
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4 g daily of ginger powder for 3 months did not
affect platelet aggregation induced by ADP and epinephrine but a
single 10 gm dose did
Bordia 1997 |
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Serum thromboxane B2 was unchanged after eating
15 gm raw ginger root or 40 gm cooked stem, for two weeks in a
randomized placebo-controlled cross-over study of 18 healthy
young adults
Janssen 1996 |
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Time of oral exposure to zingerone, an irritant
present in ginger is a greater determinant than concentration on
whether sensitization or de-sensitization results. Optimal
hiatus for desensitization was 5 min
Prescott 1996 |
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Ginger is one of the aromas tested for the
relationship between perception and depression in 119 elderly
people
Satoh 1996 |
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Gynaecological surgery related nausea was
increased by 0.5 or 1 gm of ginger in a double-blind,
randomized, controlled trial of 108 patients
Arfeen 1995 |
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Bleeding time, platelet count,
thromboelastography and whole blood platelet aggregometry
unaffected by 2 gm dried ginger in a randomised double blind
study of 8 men
Lumb 1994 |
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Gastric emptying was unaffected by 1 gm ginger
in a double-blind crossover trial with 16 healthy volunteers
Phillips 1993 |
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Nausea/vomiting was reduced by ginger (21%) more
than by metoclopramide (27%) or placebo (41%) in a randomised,
double-blind study of 120 gynaecological surgery patients
Phillips 1993 |
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Platelet aggregation, induced by epinephrine &
ADP, was inhibited by adding 5 gm. of dry ginger to fatty meals
in a study of 20 healthy men for 7 days. Serum lipids were
unchanged.
Verma 1993 |
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Hyper-emesis gravidarum relief provided with 250
mg ginger q.i.d. in a double-blind randomized cross-over trial
with 30 patients
Fischer-Rasmussen 1991 |
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Powder ginger (whole root, 500 or 1,000 mg) or
fresh ginger root (1,000 mg) provided no protection against
motion sickness induced by spinning 28 healthy volunteers
whereas scopolamine did help
Stewart 1991 |
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Post-surgical nausea was reduced by ginger or
metoclopramide in a study of 60 women in a double-blind,
randomised study
Bone 1990 |
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Breech position of pregnancy (28-38th week) was
corrected with fresh topical ginger paste nightly for 77% of 113
treated women vs. 52% of 238 untreated women
Cai 1990 |
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Neither the vestibular nor the oculomotor
system, both of which are important in motion sickness, were
influenced by ginger in a controlled, double-blind study.
Therefore, benefit is likely mediated by the gastric system
Holtmann 1989 |
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Platelet thromboxane decreased from 782 to 498
by 5 gm raw ginger daily for 7 days and raised from 910 to 1005
by 70 gm raw onion in female volunteers
Srivastava 1989 |
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Seasickness vomiting and cold sweating were
reduced by ginger in a double blind randomized placebo trial
with 80 naval cadets
Grontved 1988 |
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Vertigo was reduced by ginger in a double-blind
crossover placebo study of 8 healthy volunteers
Grontved 1986 |
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Observational Studies/Case Reports
|
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Reduction of nausea in cancer patients
undergoing 8-MOP chemotherapy
Meyer 1995 |
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Ginger moxibustion for impotence (no abstract,
Chinese)
Liang 1992 |
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Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy are
effectively treated with Vitamin B6 and ginger
Niebyl 1992 |
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"Pharmacological study of Zingiber officinale (Willd.)
Rosc. and its clinical use" (no abstract, review, Chinese)
Peng 1992 |
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Pregnancy associated nausea treated with
antihistamines, antiemetics, ginger, change of environment,
hypnotherapy and psychotherapy; review
Schouenborg 1992 |
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Arthritis patients report pain relief with
powdered ginger. Mechanism suggested to be by inhibiting
prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis
Srivastava 1992 |
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A thromboxane synthetase inhibitor such as
ginger, which activates endorphin receptors, may be an effective
substitute for clonidine for dysmenorrhea
Backon 1991 |
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Kawasaki disease immune hypersensitivity damage
to circulation might benefit from thromboxane synthetase
inhibitors such as ginger and carbon dioxide
Backon 1991 |
|
 Traditional and Folk Use
|
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Amoeba (Entamoeba histolytica) treatment with
traditional Indian mixture, 500 mg/kg/day, Boerhavia diffusa,
Berberis aristata, Tinospora cordifolia, Terminalia chebula and
Zingiber officinale, about as effective as 100 mg/kg/d
metronidazole
Sohni 1995 |
|
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Ginger (27%) and honey (25%) are the most common
home remedies for cough relief chosen by 200 mothers of sick
young children
Mishra 1994 |
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Nitrosamine induced depletion of antioxidants (glutathione,
vitamins A, C and E) prevented by Amrita Bindu (which includes
pepper, ginger, etc)
Shanmugasundaram 1994 |
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'Trikatu' an Ayurvedic preparation containing
black pepper, long pepper & ginger, is part of many treatments
and has many activities; a review
Johri 1992 |
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Anisakis larvae (ascaridoid nematode in fish
that can sicken human) are destroyed by ginger, which is
traditionally eaten with raw fish. Minimal effective dose
(micrograms/ml) is 62.5 for [6]-shogaol and 250 for [6]-gingerol
Goto 1990 |
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Survey of 143 rural mothers in India finds 'hot'
foods like tea, ginger with honey, were preferred and 'cold'
foods like curd, butter milk were restricted during an episode
of cough
Kapil 1990 |
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Ayurvedic use for neurological disorders
suggests ginger might be useful for migraine headache
Mustafa 1990 |
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Upper digestive tract hemorrhage cured in 7
people by Wen-She decoction which contains: Codonopsis pilosulae,
Atractylodes macrocephala, Poria cocos, Glycyrrhiza uralensis,
Zingiber officinale, Os sepiae Halloysitum rubrum and Astragalus
membranaceus
Gong 1989 |
|
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Ginger, reported in Ayurvedic and Tibb systems
for rheumatic disorders, helped 7 patients
Srivastava 1989 |
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"Changes in multihormones in treating male
sterility with acupuncture and indirect moxibustion using ginger
slices on the skin" (no abstract, Chinese)
Xiong 1986 |
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Adverse Effects & Toxicity
|
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Of 55 dermatitis patients 7 had positive patch
test reaction to ginger
Futrell 1993 |
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Among 55 contact dermatitis patients sensitivity
was most seen to ginger (7), nutmeg (5), oregano (4)
Futrell 1993 |
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Mutagenic assay (Salmonella reverse mutation)
was negative for ginger
Sivaswamy 1991 |
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Allergy to ginger is uncommon among patients
allergic to birch and/or mugwort pollens and celery
Stager 1991 |
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6 gm ginger or 3/4 gm garlic increases DNA
content of human gastric aspirates, indicating increased
exfoliation of gastric surface epithelial cells
Desai 1990 |
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LD50 of roasted ginger decoction administered
orally is 170.6 +/- 1.1 g/kg, but it is over 250 g/kg with dry
ginger. Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted but not
dry ginger
Wu 1990 |
|
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Sperm motility and levels increased in animals
treated 3 months with ginger, rape or Prunus amygdalus. Body
weight increased with rape & Prunus but not ginger. No toxic
signs observed
Qureshi 1989 |
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Specific IgE antibodies against coriander,
curry, mace, ginger, and paprika found in spice handler who had
asthma
van Toorenenbergen 1985 |
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Urinary bladder tumors were increased in female
ACI rats fed Zingiber mioga for a year whereas no effect for
males nor in female Fischer rats
Hirono 1982 |
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Contemporary Standardized Methods
|
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Acetone and ethanol extracts of ginger are more
effective antiememtics than aqueous extract in cisplatin treated
dogs but ineffective in apomorphine-induced emesis
Sharma 1997 |
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Beta-cyclodextrin stabilizes ginger oil for
storage
Li 1992 |
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It is possible to distinguish irradiated from
fumigated spices but not from heat-treated ones
Manninen 1991 |
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Aflatoxin detection in ginger, peanuts &
cottonseed by negative ion chemical ionization mass
spectrometric
Park 1985 |
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Review monograph of the chemistry, commerce,
processing, production, etc.
Govindarajan 1982 |
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Aflatoxin determination in ginger by
1-dimensional thin layer chromatography
Trucksess 1980 |
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Elimination of light contamination from ginger
powder
Dent 1977 |
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Contemporary Formulas
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Liver amoebiasis cure rate of 73% in hamsters
given 800 mg/kg/day of a mixture of Boerhavia diffusa, Tinospora
cordifolia, Berberis aristata, Terminalia chebula and ginger.
Also, cell-mediated immune response was stimulated
Sohni 1996 |
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Analytical Chemistry
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A method of zingiberene isolation from a
sesquiterpene-enriched fraction of ginger oil by derivitization
and flash chromatography
Millar 1998 |
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Probing for chemical changes when ginger and 14
other foods are irradiated for preservation
Yang 1998 |
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Proteases extracted from ginger root by acetone
& chromotography, are 29 kD, and inhibited by divalent metal
ions
Ohtsuki 1995 |
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Sesquiterpenes were isolated from ginger root.
Beta-sesquiphellandrene [2] has an IC50 of 0.44 microM vs.
rhinovirus IB in vitro
Denyer 1994 |
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Shogaols and gingerols isolated from ginger root
methanol extract and biphenyls from Magnolia for anti-nausea
activity. Some phenyl-propanoids with allyl side-chains have the
same activity
Kawai 1994 |
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Shogaol
[1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-deca-4-ene-3-one], a major
pungent component of ginger, metabolites followed by HPLC &
GC/MS
Surh 1994 |
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6-gingesulfonic acid, and three
monoacyldigalactosylglycerols, gingerglycolipids A, B, and C,
isolated from ginger root and their pungency and anti-ulcer
activity
Yoshikawa 1994 |
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(E)-8 beta,17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial
inhibits cholesterol biosynthesis in rat liver
Tanabe 1993 |
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6, 8, 10-gingerol, 6,8-shogaol,
6-dehydrogingerdione, and galanolactone analyzed by HPLC & GLC
vary with country of origin
Yoshikawa 1993 |
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Beta-sesquiphellandrene, beta-bisabolene,
ar-curcumene and 6-shogaol were identified as anti-ulcer active
principles in ginger by testing on rats. (3S,5S)-dihydroxy
1-(4'-hydroxy-3',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)-7-(4''-hydrox
y-3''-methoxyphenyl)heptane is reported
Yamahara 1992 |
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Galanolactone, diterpenoid from ginger, inhibits
ileum contractile responses to serotonin, with pIC50 of 4.9. The
relaxing effect of galanolactone was about 1/10 of that of
papaverine
Huang 1991 |
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Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of
Zingiber cassumunar are attributed to
(E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-1-ene
Ozaki 1991 |
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25 constituents were found by GC-MS-DS in fresh
ginger, 23 in roasted ginger, 22 in dry ginger
Ye 1989 |
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4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-one (zingerone)
is largely excreted in 24 hour urine, mainly as glucuronide
and/or sulphates. Some is reduced to the carbinol; some oxidized
to C6-C2 metabolites. Entero-hepatic cycling occurs
Monge 1976 |
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Pharmacodynamics
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Spoilage microorganisms in mango juice are
inhibited by aqueous extract of ginger (15%, vol/vol) or nutmeg
(20%, vol/vol) but taste considered unacceptable. Heating to 55
C for 15 min. plus nutmeg (4%, vol/vol) was was effective and
tasted better
Ejechi 1998 |
|
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Aspergillus is inhibited better by garlic than
ginger
Yin 1998 |
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Patch clamp measurement of currents induced by
capsaicin, piperine, and zingerone, structurally related pungent
compounds, indicate threshold of 0.1 microM, 3 microM & 1 mM,
respectively
Liu 1996 |
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Analysis of 121 ethnic foods revealed that the
highest mycotoxin levels and frequency of occurrence were in
chili powder, curry powder and ginger
Patel 1996 |
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No genetic change noted with ginger in screening
Aspergillus for mitotic crossing-over, chromosome malsegregation
or clastogenic effects
Ramos 1996 |
|
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Ephedrine in rhizoma Pinelliae appears to be
potentiated by ginger
Wu 1996 |
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Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with
ginger ethanol extract, 10-30 mg/ml in vitro, secrete increased
IL1 beta, IL6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
after 18 hours
Chang 1995 |
|
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Radiation sterilization converts terpenes to
monoterpenesalcohols. Ginger was sensitive to high doses but
less affected by 10 kGy dose sufficient to eliminate
micro-organisms
Farag 1995 |
|
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Gingerol inhibits arachidonic induced platelet
aggregation, thromboxane B2 and prostaglandin D2 formation, and
phosphoinositide breakdown, but not effective for thrombin or
platelet-activating factor (PAF) induced aggregation
Guh 1995 |
|
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Ginger, pepper, pippali and mustard increased
the number of revertants in a sensitive Salmonella assay
indicating their mutagenic potential. Garlic, Asafoetida,
tumeric, curcumin & eugenol were protective
Soudamini 1995 |
|
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P450 increased by nutmeg and zanthoxylum oils;
decreased by cardamom oil; unaffected by celery seed, cumin
seed, coriander, ginger. Hydroxylase activity increased by
ginger oil; decreased by nutmeg; unaffected by the others
Banerjee 1994 |
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Aflatoxin DNA adducts were suppressed by
essential oils of nutmeg, ginger, cardamom, celery, xanthoxylum,
black pepper, cumin, and coriander
Hashim 1994 |
|
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Superoxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging by
ginger
Cao 1993 |
|
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Superoxide radicals were inhibited by zingerone
from ginger, linalool from Coriander, eugenol & cumin.
Krishnakantha 1993 |
|
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Prostaglandin synthetase and arachidonate
5-lipoxygenase are inhibited by gingerols and diarylhepatanoids
from ginger
Kiuchi 1992 |
|
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Serotonin bioassay with bovine platelets of
feverfew, ginger, wormwood, verapamil & propranolol
Marles 1992 |
|
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Liver metabolism of
1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-deca-4-ene-3-one (shogaol), a
pungent principle of ginger
Surh 1992 |
|
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Ginger fails to inhibit drug-induced
mutagenicity whereas garlic, onion, tomato & cucumber do so
Zhao 1992 |
|
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Antioxidant activity of ginger and 49 other
ethanol extracts
Zhou 1992 |
|
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Schistosoma infectivity abolished completely by
gingerol (5.0 ppm). Gingerol and shogaol have potent
molluscicidal activity on Biomphalaria glabrata
Adewunmi 1990 |
|
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Iontropic effect on heart by [8]-Gingerol was
abolished by ryanodine, but little affected by propranolol,
chlorpheniramine, cimetidine, tetrodotoxin, diltiazem or
reserpine
Kobayashi 1988 |
|
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Arachidonic acid biotransformation was inhibited
by root aqueous extracts of ginger, Paeonia, Scutellaria, Rheum,
indomethacin or by serum from rats treated 1 hour with Coptis,
Paeonia or indomethacin
Umeda 1988 |
|
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Cytotoxicity (and inhibition of thymidine
uptake) to lymphoma, human lymphocytes, CHO & Vero cells by
herbs: ginger > pippali > pepper > garlic > asafetida > mustard
> horse-gram
Unnikrishnan 1988 |
|
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"A uterine relaxant compound from Zingiber
cassumunar" (no abstract)
Kanjanapothi 1987 |
|
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Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-pump and Ca2+-ATPase
activities were stimulated by gingerol (3-30 microM)
Kobayashi 1987 |
|
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Gingerol and shogaol were mutagenic while
zingerone was not in the sensitive Salmonella assay
Nagabhushan 1987 |
|
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Thromboxane synthetase inhibition and
prostacyclin stimulation without a rise in PEG2 or PGF2a by
ginger; a review
Backon 1986 |
|
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Arachidonate induced thromboxane formation and
platelet aggregation was inhibited by ginger extract
Srivastava 1986 |
|
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(6)-shogaol activity is similar to capsaicin in
regards to blood pressure, bradycardia and aponea
Suekawa 1986 |
|
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Micrococcus luteus was the only one of a set of
microorganisms inhibited by ginger. E.coli, Salmonella, Vibrio,
Pseudomonas, Proteus, Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium,
Streptococcus, Bacillus unaffected
Chen 1985 |
|
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Platelet aggregation induced by ADP,
epinephrine, collagen and arachidonate inhibited by onion,
garlic and ginger in a dose-dependent manner in vitro
Srivas 1984 |
|
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Mutagenic activity of [6]-gingerol is attributed
to the aliphatic hydroxy group based on comparison with
[6]-Shogaol, curcumin, myristic, stearic & oleic acids
Nakamura 1983 |
|
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Ascaris lumbricoides anthelmintic action by
Zingiber zerumbeth, cinnamon, and others
Raj 1975 |
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Pharmacokinetics (ADME)
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[6]-gingerol over the concentration range of
0.2-40 micrograms/ml to rat has halflife of 7.2 min. and total
body clearance of 16.8 ml/min/kg. Serum protein binding of
[6]-gingerol was 92.4%.
Ding 1991 |
|
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Ginger & pepper, pungent acrid components of
many Ayurveda preparations, were shown to increase
bioavailability of vasicine & sparteine
Atal 1981 |
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Genetics & Molecular Biology
|
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Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate
phosphodiesterase inhibition by ginger and 58 other Chinese herb
medicines
Suzuki 1991 |
|
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Cytochrome enzymes P450 and b5 are stimulated by
ginger, fenugreek and cumin. NADPH-cytochrome c reductase and
glucuronyl transferase are unaffected
Sambaiah 1989 |
|
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Animal Studies
|
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Cholesterol and atherosclerosis were reduced
when an ethanolic extract of ginger (200 mg/kg, p.o.) was added
to a high cholesterol diet fed to rabbits
Bhandari 1998 |
|
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[6]-gingerol inhibited phorbol/DMBA induced skin
cancer and suppressed phorbol (TPA) induced epidermal ornithine
decarboxylase activity and inflammation
Park 1998 |
|
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Gastric emptying problem caused by cisplatin
cancer therapy is reversed by ginger juice (@ 2 - 4 ml/kg)
better than ondansetron in dogs. Acetone or 50% ethanolic
extract @ 100, 200 or 500 mg/kg (p.o.) are less effective
Sharma 1998 |
|
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Combination of garlic and ginger is more
effective at improving blood glucose and serum lipids than
either alone or placebo in rats
Ahmed 1997 |
|
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Zingicomb (ginger:ginkgo ratio of 2.5:1)
increased maze exploration by rats
Hasenohrl 1996 |
|
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Dose dependent inhibition of phorbol TPA induced
ornithine decarboxylase, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase,
markers of skin tumor promotion. Ginger protects against TPA/DMBA
induced epidermal edema and hyperplasia in mice
Katiyar 1996 |
|
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Dietary curcumin, capsaicin, piperine and ginger
(50 mg%) enhanced intestinal lipase activity and the
disaccharidases sucrase and maltase. Dietary cumin, fenugreek,
mustard and asafoetida decreased phosphatases and sucrase
Platel 1996 |
|
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LiCl reaction in rats (an indicator of
antiemetic properties) is reduced by 50 - 100 mg/kg zingicomb
(ginger & ginkgo)
Frisch 1995 |
|
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Gingerol from ginger had activity similar to
other capsaicin like stinulators of oxygen uptake
Eldershaw 1994 |
|
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Joint sweling induced by Mycobacterium was
reduced by pretreatment with eugenol and ginger oil orally for
26 days
Sharma 1994 |
|
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Gingerols are more potent than shogaols at
inducing oxygen consumption in muscles. Potency is correlated
with vasoconstriction; inversely correlated with alkyl chain
length; unrelated to catecholamine or adrenergic receptors
Eldershaw 1992 |
|
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Immunoreactive substance P (ISP) was increased
by (6)-Shogaol, 30-1000 microM dose dependently and depends on
calcium ions. Capsaicin induced release of ISP is inhibited by
shogaol
Onogi 1992 |
|
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Ginger juice increased amplitude and decreased
frequency of fundus strip contractions and increased ileum
contraction. Ginger shows non-competitive antagonism with
acetylcholine and histamine indicating involvement of substance
P
Qian 1992 |
|
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|
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) oxidation by
liver microsomes inhibited by zingerone from ginger at high
concentrations (over 150 microM), curcumin (5-50 microM),
turmeric & eugenol (25-150 microM), cloves and capsaicin (25-150
microM)
Reddy 1992 |
|
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6-gingesulfonic acid from ginger root has more
anti-ulcer activity than 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol in rats
Yoshikawa 1992 |
|
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5 times the normal human intake of ginger,
cinnamon, cumin, mustard and tamarind did not lower cholesterol
in rats
Sambaiah 1991 |
|
|
|
Liver cholesterol-7 alpha-hydroxylase, the
rate-limiting enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis, was increased by
curcumin (turmeric), capsaicin (red pepper), ginger and mustard
and unaffected by black pepper or cumin
Srinivasan 1991 |
|
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|
Serotonin (5-HT) induced hypothermia & diarrhea
is inhibited by ginger extract. This is attributed to
[6]-shogaol, which was more potent than [6]-dehydrogingerdione,
[8]- and [10]-gingerol
Huang 1990 |
|
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Gastric ulcers in rats are inhibited by roasted
but not dry ginger
Wu 1990 |
|
|
|
Gastrointestinal time of meal transport reduced
by ginger acetone extract at 75 mg/kg, [6]-shogaol at 2.5 mg/kg,
or a [6]-, [8]- or [10]-gingerol at 5 mg/kg. Effect is similar
to that of metoclopramide and donperidone
Yamahara 1990 |
|
|
|
Gastric lesions induced in rats by alcohol,
alkali, salt, NSAIDs or restraint are alleviated by ginger
extract
al-Yahya 1989 |
|
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|
Gingerols relaxed muscle and modulate the
response to eicosanoids: increasing effect by PGF2 alpha, PGE2,
PGI2-Na, and TRK-100, but suppressed the response to PGD2,
U-46619, LTC4, LTD4, NA and PhE
Kimura 1989 |
|
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|
Blood glucose lowered in rabbits; prostaglandin
inhibited in rat leucocytes; gram positive and negative bacteria
inhibited; and some inflammation in rats inhibited by ginger
Mascolo 1989 |
|
|
|
Noradrenaline contractile response inhibited by
[6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. PGF2a induced contraction
potentiated by [6]-gingerol and inhibited by [6]-shogaol
Pancho 1989 |
|
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|
Catecholamine (esp. epinephrine) secretion from
rat adrenal increased by zingerone, capsaicin & piperine
(pepper)
Kawada 1988 |
|
|
|
Gastric lesions induced by ethanol inhibited by
acetone extract @ 1000 mg/kg (97%), zingiberene at 100 mg/kg
(54%), or 6-Gingerol, the pungent principle, @ 100 mg/kg (55%)
Yamahara 1988 |
|
|
|
Dirofilaria immitis infected dogs injected with
ginger extract had microfilarial concentration in blood reduced
by a maximum of 98%, which persisted 55 days after treatment at
83%
Datta 1987 |
|
|
|
Blood pressure decrease induced by (6)-shogaol
is prevented by atropine and vagotomy
Suekawa 1986 |
|
|
|
6)-Shogaol, a pungent compound in semi-dried
ginger but rarely in fresh ginger, inhibited carrageenin-induced
swelling, arachidonate induced platelet aggregation and
prostaglandin I2 release from rat aorta
Suekawa 1986 |
|
|
|
Bile secretion increase by ginger attributed to
[6]-gingerol and [10]-gingerol
Yamahara 1985 |
|
|
|
(6)-gingerol or (6)-shogaol show inhibition of
spontaneous motor activity, antipyretic, analgesic & antitussive
effects, lower blood pressure and prolonged hexobarbital-induced
sleeping time
Suekawa 1984 |
|
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Related Links
|
 |
Taxon information at
GRIN |
|
|
|
|
|
Search for Zingiber officinale in Dr. Duke's
Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases.
| | |
