 |
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| EVIDENCE FOR EFFICACY
(HUMAN DATA) |
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Clinical Trials
|
 |
"A strategic call to utilize Echinacea-garlic in
flu-cold seasons " (review, no abstract)
Abdullah 2000 |
|
|
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Cholesterol decreased after 8 weeks in volunteer
groups with guggulipid from 212 to 143, with allicin from 148 to
130, and with bengal gram seeds from 157 to 135
Ghorai 2000 |
|
|
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Atherosclerosis treatment with garlic lacks
clinical validation
Jepson 2000 |
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Immune-stimulation by low molecular weight
sulfur compounds in Garlic (macrophages, natural killer & killer
cells, LAK cells, increases of IL-2, TNF & IFN-gamma) make it
worthy clinical trials for cancer prevention
Lamm 2000 |
|
|
|
The only cholesterol parameter that changed was
a reduced mean peak particle diameter in pattern A (large LDL)
in a study with 50 moderately hypercholesterolemic patients
Superko 2000 |
|
|
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22% of presurgical patients reported the use of
herbal remedies; especially echinacea, gingko biloba, St. John's
wort, garlic & ginseng
Tsen 2000 |
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LDL oxidation was unchanged by garlic in people
Byrne 1999 |
|
|
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Arteriosclerotic plaque volume in carotid &
femoral arteries decreased 5-18% with continuous intake of
high-dose garlic powder in a study of 152 people
Koscielny 1999 |
|
|
|
Tinea was healed by ajoene (0.6%) & terbinafine
(1%) in 73% & 71% after 2 months in a study with 60 soldiers
Ledezma 1999 |
|
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LDL isolated from people taking 0.8 g DL-alpha-tocopherol
acetate or 2.4 g aged garlic extract (AGE) for 7 days was more
resistant to Cu2+-mediated oxidation. Raw garlic (6 g) was not
effective
Munday 1999 |
|
|
|
9-18% reduction & 3% regression in plaque
volume, decrease in LDL 4%, increase in HDL 8%, lowered blood
pressure 7% and opening of K(Ca) ion channels were found in a
prospective, 4-year clinical trial of garlic
Siegel 1999 |
|
|
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No influence on serum lipoproteins, cholesterol
absorption, or cholesterol synthesis in a crossover study with
25 moderate hypercholesterolemia patients
Berthold 1998 |
|
|
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New rigorously designed controlled studies show
less evidence for lipid lowering properties of garlic; a review
Berthold 1998 |
|
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Total cholesterol, triglycerides & platelet
thromboxane formation decreased and HDL increased in 30 coronary
artery disease patients taking garlic for 3 months compared with
a placebo group. There was no effect on fibrinogen & glucose
levels
Bordia 1998 |
|
|
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No significant lipid or lipoprotein changes with
300 mg of garlic powder (Kwai) 3 times per day for 12 weeks in a
double blind study with 40 hypercholesterolemia patients
Isaacsohn 1998 |
|
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"The effect of garlic on hypercholesterolemia in
renal transplant patients " (no abstract)
Lash 1998 |
|
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No significant effect on cholesterol levels by
garlic extract (Kwai 300 mg, 3 times a day) in 30 teens with
familial hyperlipidemia having fasting total cholesterol over
4.8 mmol/L (> 185 mg/dL)
McCrindle 1998 |
|
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Platelet aggregation induced by epinephrine or
collagen were decreased by aged garlic extract vs. placebo in a
10-month study with moderately hypercholesterolemic men.
Platelet adhesion to fibrinogen was reduced 30%
Steiner 1998 |
|
|
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Pulse wave velocity (PWV) &
pressure-standardized elastic vascular resistance (EVR) were
lower in the garlic group of 101 people who took 300 mg/d garlic
for over 2 years than in matched controls
Breithaupt-Grogler 1997 |
|
|
|
"Immunologic aspects of alisate in diabetes
mellitus patients " (Russian, no abstract)
Mel'chinskaia 1997 |
|
|
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Decreases in cholesterol (11%), triglyceride
(34%), LDL (10%) & HDL (19%) in 40 hyperlipid patients who added
fish oil (1800 mg EPA + 1200 mg docosahexanoic acid) with garlic
powder (1200 mg) capsules
Morcos 1997 |
|
|
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No benefit by 900 mg/day dried garlic powder (standardised
@ 1.3% allicin) in 115 individuals with 6.0-8.5 mmol/l total
cholesterol & 3.5 mmol/l LDL, in contrast to previous
meta-analyses that showed reduction in total cholesterol of
-0.65 mmol/l
Neil 1996 |
|
|
|
Decreases in cholesterol 7%, LDL 4% & systolic
blood pressure 5.5% by 7.2 g aged garlic extract/d for 6 mo in a
double-blind crossover study of 41 moderately
hypercholesterolemic men, 5.7-7.5 mmol/L (220-290 mg/dL)
Steiner 1996 |
|
|
|
Combined treatment of gonococcal arthritis by
acupuncture, garlic moxibustion, pricking blood, cupping and
drawing hydrarthrus benefited 85% of 116 patients
Wang 1996 |
|
|
|
Colorectal polyps risk is lowered by vegetables
0.47, fruits 0.65, grains 0.55 and by high carotenoid
vegetables, cruciferae, high vitamin C fruits, garlic, and tofu
in a study of 488 matched pairs after sigmoidoscopy
Witte 1996 |
|
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Cholesterol decreased 20%, thromboxane decreased
80% and serum glucose was unchanged after 26 weeks of consuming
one clove (about 3 g) of fresh garlic daily
Ali 1995 |
|
|
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Unchanged plasma cholesterol, LDL, HDL,
triglycerides, or blood pressure in a double-blind, crossover
study with hypercholesterolaemia (5.5-8.05 mmol/l) taking Kwai
garlic powder tablets 300 mg three times daily for 12 weeks
Simons 1995 |
|
|
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Acetaminophen metabolism was nearly unaffected
in 16 people taking garlic extract (equivalent to 6-7 cloves)
for 3 months
Gwilt 1994 |
|
|
|
Meta analysis of 16 trials with 952 subjects
found total cholesterol & serum triglyceride were lowered by
garlic
Silagy 1994 |
|
|
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Meta analysis of 8 trials with 415 subjects
found 3 had reduced systolic blood pressure and 4 lower
diastolic blood pressure but more-rigorously designed and
analysed trials are needed
Silagy 1994 |
|
|
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Total cholesterol & LDL decreased modestly in a
study with 42 people with cholesterol over 220 mg/dl taking 900
mg/d garlic powder tablets for 12 weeks
Jain 1993 |
|
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43 patients with high cholesterol (230-390) had
a modest lowering by garlic-ginkgo combination compared with
placebo
Kenzelmann 1993 |
|
|
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Peripheral arterial occlusive disease stage II
improved slightly in a 12-week study with garlic powder (800
mg/d)
Kiesewetter 1993 |
|
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Infants who had no exposure to garlic in their
mothers' milk during the experimental period spent more time
breast-feeding after their mothers ingested garlic capsules
Mennella 1993 |
|
|
|
Meta analysis of 5 (out of 28) studies finds
cholesterol decreased in garlic groups by 9%
Warshafsky 1993 |
|
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Infant thrush treatment with 0.06/1000 allicin
Zhang 1992 |
|
|
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Vasodilation of precapillary arterioles by
garlic powder (Kwai, 900 mg) in humans which increases the
diameter of erythrocyte column by 8.6%
Jung 1991 |
|
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Spontaneous thrombocyte aggregation disappeared,
skin microcirculation increased 47.6% and decreases in plasma
viscosity by 3.2%, diastolic blood pressure by 9.5% and blood
glucose by 11.6%
Kiesewetter 1991 |
|
|
|
Giardia & Hymenolepis treatment with garlic in
36 children
Soffar 1991 |
|
|
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Ascaris lumbricoides was not reduced by garlic,
8 gm/d for 5 days to children, as an infusion
Campos 1990 |
|
|
|
Improvement of blood fluidity and increased
fibrinolytic activity by garlic in a double blind study
Kiesewetter 1990 |
|
|
|
Lower total cholesterol, triglycerides and blood
pressure in a double-blind study of 40 hypercholesterolaemic
patients taking 900 mg/d garlic powder (equivalent to 2,700 mg
fresh garlic
Vorberg 1990 |
|
|
|
Methodlolgical shortcomings in clinical trials
with garlic
Kleijnen 1989 |
|
|
|
"Garlic and diabetes mellitus phase II clinical
trial " (no abstract)
Sitprija 1987 |
|
|
|
Fibrinolytic activity increased by 72% and 63%
within 6 h of administration of raw or fried garlic,
respectively
Chutani 1981 |
|
|
|
Cholesterol decreased in people taking 10 g of
raw garlic daily with their diet for two months
Bhushan 1979 |
|
|
Observational Studies/Case Reports
|
|
|
Review of evidence for echinacea, garlic,
ginger, ginkgo, St John's wort, and valerian
Barrett 1999 |
|
|
|
Helicobacter pylori was eliminated in only 1 of
15 people taking 300-mg tablets of dried garlic powder (Li 114;
Lichtwer) 3 times a day for 8 weeks
Ernst 1999 |
|
|
|
Urea breath test was unchanged in 12
Helicobacter pylori infected adults eating fresh garlic (10
sliced cloves) or capsaicin (six sliced fresh jalapenos)
Graham 1999 |
|
|
|
Hepatopulmonary syndrome & arterial oxygenation
improved in some of the 15 patients taking garlic powder
capsules daily for 6 months
Abrams 1998 |
|
|
|
"Effects of eifitol on lipid metabolism in
patients with clinically different ischemic heart diseases "
(Russian, no abstract)
Panchenko 1997 |
|
|
|
'The effect of garlic preparation alisat on the
level of lipid peroxidation products, activity of various
antioxidant enzymes, and blood level of lipoproteins in patients
with atherosclerosis " (Russian, no abstract)
Mikhin 1996 |
|
|
|
Odor of amniotic fluid of pregnant women 45
minutes after ingesting garlic oil
Mennella 1995 |
|
|
|
Hepatopulmonary syndrome modest improvement in a
patient who declined liver transplantation and took large daily
doses of powdered garlic
Caldwell 1992 |
|
|
|
"A comparative study of the efficacy of garlic
and eugenol as palliative agents against dental pain of pulpal
origin " (no abstract)
Diaz 1985 |
|
|
|
"Sporotrichosis treated with garlic juice. A
case report " (no abstract)
Tutakne 1983 |
|
|
|
"Garlic in cryptococcal meningitis: a
preliminary report of 21 cases " (no abstract)
anon 1980 |
|
|
|
|
|
"The use of garlic phytoncides in the treatment
of pulpitis and periodontitis " (Russian, no abstract)
Vital'eva 1968 |
|
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|
Traditional and Folk Use
|
|
|
Garlic & onion are among the oldest cultivated
plants. The antimicrobial, antithrombotic, antitumor,
hypolipidaemic, antiarthritic and hypoglycemic activities are
reviewed
Ali 2000 |
|
|
|
Garlic & ginseng are consistently among the
biggest selling supplements. Garlic & lecithin were the most
used supplements in the third National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES III)
Radimer 2000 |
|
|
|
Antihelmintics of Central Italy are Ruta,
Cucurbita, Artemisia & Allium sativum while antiparasitics are
Juglans, Lupinus, Ruta, Fraxinus, Datura, Artemisia & Allium
cepa
Guarrera 1999 |
|
|
|
Colorectal cancer is associated with a diet high
in refined grains & red meat and low in vegetables, coffee &
garlic in a study of 223 patients compared with 491 controls
Levi 1999 |
|
|
|
Attacks of paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis,
a rare genetic disorder mapped to chromosome 2q31-36, are
believed by patients to be softened by eating garlic
Matsuo 1999 |
|
|
|
Gastric cancer incidence is low in Jiangsu
Province, China, where there is high consumption of raw
vegetables, fruit, tomatoes, kidney beans, soy & raw garlic
Takezaki 1999 |
|
|
|
345 breast cancer patients compared with matched
controls found risk is reduced by fiber, garlic & onions
Challier 1998 |
|
|
|
328 prostate cancer patients compared with
matched controls found risk lowered by carotene (0.65), zinc
(0.73), B vitamins (0.70), garlic (0.56), beans (0.57)
Key 1997 |
|
|
|
Among 626 hypertensive/diabetic patients 2/3 use
herbal medicine. Most used by hypertension patients were Allium
sativum, Olea europea, Arbutus unedo, Urtica dioica &
Petroselinum crispum
Ziyyat 1997 |
|
|
|
Colon & rectum carcinoma were not associated
with garlic nor leek consumption in the 150-item food frequency
questionnaire of the Netherlands Cohort Study with 120,852
people
Dorant 1996 |
|
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|
Breast cancer was not associated with garlic nor
leek consumption in the 150-item food frequency questionnaire of
the Netherlands Cohort Study with 120,852 people
Dorant 1995 |
|
|
|
Antimutagenic/anticarcinogenic potential of some
commonly consumed spices & vegetables such as turmeric, mustard,
green leafy & allium species; a review
Krishnaswamy 1995 |
|
|
|
Colon cancer is inversely associated with
consumption of garlic and total vegetables in the Iowa Women's
Health Study of 41,837 women aged 55-69 who completed a 127-item
food frequency questionnaire
Steinmetz 1994 |
|
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|
Allium sativum & Chenopodium ambrosoides were
used as anthelmintics in rural Guatemala
Booth 1993 |
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|
Review of evidence of garlic for prevention of
cancer in humans is not conclusive but warrants further research
Dorant 1993 |
|
|
|
"Antibacterial activity of garlic and onions: a
historical perspective " (no abstract)
Farbman 1993 |
|
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|
Dietary of the previous 10 years of 268
endometrial cancer patients compared with matched controls found
risk increased with fat & protein and lower with fruit & Allium
Shu 1993 |
|
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"Garlic as cultural historical medicinal
plant--truth or superstition? " (no abstract)
Johansson 1992 |
|
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Interviews with 564 gastric cancer patients vs.
1131 controls indicates lower risk with fresh vegetables,
including garlic
You 1991 |
|
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|
Early remedies for chronic bronchitis included
garlic, pepper, cinnamon & turpentine. Later therapies
emphasized coffee, ipecac & potassium nitrate. Modern
bronchodilators derived from traditional folk remedies:
ephedrine, atropine & theophylline
Ziment 1991 |
|
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|
Effects of fractions from Chinese drugs "xiebai"
& "dasuan" (roots of Allium bakeri & A. sativum, respectively)
on human platelet aggregation
Okuyama 1989 |
|
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|
Folk use and continued popularity of ginseng and
garlic
Dubick 1986 |
|
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Bulgarian traditional medicine in the Middle
Ages with discussion about garlic
Petkov 1986 |
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|
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"The medical uses of garlic--fact and fiction "
(no abstract)
Bolton 1982 |
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Garlic has had a firm place in folk medicine
since ancient times. Modern study shows antimicrobial action,
lowering of cholesterol, vascular effects and inhibition of
thrombocyte aggregation
Ernst 1981 |
|
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|
"Effect of dietary garlic and onion on serum
lipid profile in Jain community " (no abstract)
Sainani 1979 |
|
|
|
"Medicinal uses of common Indian vegetables "
(no abstract)
Vohora 1973 |
|
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Contraindications
|
|
|
Review of the pharmacology, efficacy, safety,
and pharmokinetics St. John's Wort, chromium, and garlic used
for depression, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia,
respectively. Safety with renal patients is unstudied
Duncan 1999 |
|
|
|
Review of herb-drug interactions suggests
Feverfew, garlic, Ginkgo, ginger, and ginseng may alter bleeding
time and should not be used concomitantly with warfarin
Miller 1998 |
|
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"Effects of aspirin and garlic on cyclooxygenase-induced
chemiluminescence in human term placenta " (no abstract)
Das 1997 |
|
|
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"Garlic as a possible risk for postoperative
bleeding " (case report, no abstract)
Burnham 1995 |
|
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"Garlic and the risk of TURP bleeding " (case
report, no abstract)
German 1995 |
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Collagen induced platelet aggregation decreased
with garlic extract in humans but concentrations were higher
than normally attainable
Morris 1995 |
|
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|
"Garlic and postoperative bleeding " (no
abstract)
Petry 1995 |
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Adverse Effects & Toxicity
|
|
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Anti-alliinase antibodies in human serum contain
the motif-GKXVXX-
Tchernychev 2000 |
|
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Role of certain foods--including garlic, onion &
leeks in provoking and exacerbating pemphigus (skin disease)
Brenner 1999 |
|
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"Severe toxic contact dermatitis caused by
garlic " (no abstract)
Eming 1999 |
|
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Case of a patient with a positive type-IV patch
test for diallyl disulfide and strong, non-irritant reactions
after 20 min and 24 hrs in the scratch chamber test with fresh
total garlic
Jappe 1999 |
|
|
|
Colchicum autumnale confused with wild garlic (Allium
ursinum) resulted in death of one and a 3-day episode of nausea,
vomiting and watery diarrhea in the other person
Klintschar 1999 |
|
|
|
Case of anaphylactic reaction after eating young
garlic in a woman with prior history of allergy &
exercise-induced anaphylaxis who had IgE-binding bands at 12 kDa
to young garlic, garlic, onion & leek extracts
Perez-Pimiento 1999 |
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"A case of garlic allergy " (no abstract)
Asero 1998 |
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Garlic sensitization was shown by a bronchial
challenge test in 7 out of 12 garlic workers
Anibarro 1997 |
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Occupational dermatitis of the fingers from
onion, garlic & tulips
Bruynzeel 1997 |
|
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Time for the first platelet aggregate to appear
in pial arterioles was delayed by 100 mg/kg garlic or by 25
mg/kg aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid)
el-Sabban 1997 |
|
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Low doses of garlic (50 mg/kg) to rats had
little effect on lung & liver tissues as compared to controls
whereas high doses (500 mg/kg) resulted in profound changes in
lung & liver tissues
Alnaqeeb 1996 |
|
|
|
"Can inhalation of garlic dust cause asthma? "
(no abstract)
Armentia 1996 |
|
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Allergic contact dermatitis to garlic usually
has a typical clinical presentation but can be masked by another
form of hand dermatitis. Patch testing with 1% diallyl disulfide
in petrolatum is recommended if suspected
Delaney 1996 |
|
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"Garlic burns mimicking herpes zoster " (no
abstract)
Farrell 1996 |
|
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Of 1000 dermatology patients, 5 had occupational
(food handling) allergy to spices, including garlic, cinnamon,
ginger, allspice and clove. Although rare, it should not be
overlooked
Kanerva 1996 |
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A case of occupational asthma caused by several
aromatic herbs: thyme, rosemary, bay leaf, and garlic, the
latter inducing greatest RAST reactivity
Lemiere 1996 |
|
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Case of superficial pemphigus associated with
eating garlic
Ruocco 1996 |
|
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|
Pemphigus is induced, in vitro, with skin
samples from patients cultured with allylmercaptan,
allylmethylsulfide & allylsulfide from garlic
Brenner 1995 |
|
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"Effects of garlic extract on platelet
aggregation " (no abstract)
Myers 1995 |
|
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Human serum contains natural antibodies to
alliinase (Alliin lyase) and mannose-specific lectin from garlic
Tchernychev 1995 |
|
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|
Pollen allergy patients have more food
allergies, especially peanut, garlic, tomato, onion; and fruits,
such as peach; and animal foods, such as egg (white) and pork
Boccafogli 1994 |
|
|
|
"Garlic-induced systemic contact dermatitis "
(case report, no abstract)
Burden 1994 |
|
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|
Ornithine decarboxylase activity (ODC) is
increased by allyl mercapton which might contribute to
hepatocarcinogenesis
Takada 1994 |
|
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"Garlic burns " (case report, no abstract)
Garty 1993 |
|
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|
"Three cases of occupational asthma and rhinitis
caused by garlic " (no abstract)
Seuri 1993 |
|
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|
A single large dose, 500 mg/kg i.p. decreased
liver enzymes whereas 50 mg/kg i.p. for 5 days increased them in
rats
Dalvi 1992 |
|
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|
"Allergic contact dermatitis from garlic " (no
abstract)
McFadden 1992 |
|
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300 & 600 mg/kg/24 h of a Garlic bulb aqueous
extract for 21 days causes toxic effects in rats
Fehri 1991 |
|
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8 patients developed contact dermatitis after
rubbing the cut end of a fresh garlic bulb onto the skin to
treat fungal and other infections at the groin, neck, lower
limb, hand or face. Patch tests with garlic extract were all
negative
Lee 1991 |
|
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|
"Allergic contact dermatitis due to garlic (Allium
sativum) " (no abstract)
Lembo 1991 |
|
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|
"An equine case of urticaria associated with dry
garlic feeding " (no abstract)
Miyazawa 1991 |
|
|
|
Increased weight of seminal vesicles &
epididymides of male mice after 3 months of garlic water extract
in drinking water (100 mg/kg/d)
al-Bekairi 1990 |
|
|
|
"Factitial dermatitis induced by application of
garlic " (case report, no abstract)
Kaplan 1990 |
|
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Case of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma
causing paraplegia secondary to a qualitative platelet disorder
from excessive garlic ingestion
Rose 1990 |
|
|
|
Rise in urea & D-aspartate aminotransferase and
inhibition of alkaline phosphatase in serum in rats fed garlic
extract (20 ml/kg) for 10 days. Garlic oil (100 mg/kg) caused
lethal acute pulmonary oedema
Joseph 1989 |
|
|
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"Contact allergy to garlic used for wound
healing " (no abstract)
Bojs 1988 |
|
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|
Botulism associated with commercial chopped
garlic in soybean oil
St Louis 1988 |
|
|
|
Hand eczema among 50 caterers was associated
with fish & garlic
Cronin 1987 |
|
|
|
Case of a child who sustained partial thickness
burns from a garlic-petroleum jelly plaster
Parish 1987 |
|
|
|
Sperm motility was inhibited by 7.5 mg/ml of
allitridum from garlic
Qian 1986 |
|
|
|
|
|
Case report and literature review of allergy to
onion & garlic, usually an eczema of the fingertips. Risk groups
include grocers, housewives & cooks
Lautier 1985 |
|
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|
Genotoxic effects of orally administered garlic
and turmeric were not found with bone-marrow cells of mice
Abraham 1984 |
|
|
|
LD50 of garlic extract by P.O., I.P. & S.C.
administration were estimated over 30 ml/kg in rats & mice
Nakagawa 1984 |
|
|
|
"Suspected wild garlic poisoning in sheep " (no
abstract)
Stevens 1984 |
|
|
|
Garlic-sensitive patients showed positive tests
to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and
allicin
Papageorgiou 1983 |
|
|
|
Erratic pulse rates & abnormal ECG, weight loss,
lethargy, dehydration & tender skin in toxicological test of
garlic in 8 rats for 28 days
Ruffin 1983 |
|
|
|
"Immediate and delayed sensitization to garlic "
(case report, no abstract)
Campolmi 1982 |
|
|
|
"Occupational allergy secondary inhalation of
garlic dust " (no abstract)
Couturier 1982 |
|
|
|
"Effects of chronic administration of garlic (Allium
sativum Linn) on testicular function " (no abstract)
Dixit 1982 |
|
|
|
Repeated exposure to garlic dust induced severe
asthma in an atopic patient who also had high levels of garlic
specific IgE
Lybarger 1982 |
|
|
|
Case of garlic dust precipitated asthma in a
person with IgE anti-garlic antibodies
Falleroni 1981 |
|
|
|
"Contact dermatitis caused by Allium sativum "
(Romanian case report, no abstract)
Martinescu 1981 |
|
|
|
"Contact sensitivity to garlic (Allium) " (case
report, no abstract)
Mitchell 1980 |
|
|
|
"Occupational eczema from garlic and onion " (no
abstract)
van Ketel 1978 |
|
|
|
53 patients with contact dermatitis on the
fingertips had positive patch tests garlic > onion > tomato >
carrot. The antigens in garlic & onion were extractable in
water, ether, acetone, or alcohol
Sinha 1977 |
|
|
|
Contact allergy by metal, onion & garlic in food
handlers
Hjorth 1976 |
|
|
|
"Contact dermatitis to garlic; crossreactivity
between garlic, onion and tulip " (no abstract)
Bleumink 1973 |
|
|
|
"Allergic contact dermatitis to garlic " (no
abstract)
Bleumink 1972 |
|
|
|
"Garlic food allergy with symptoms of Meniere's
disease " (Czech, no abstract)
Benes 1966 |
|
|
Interactions
|
|
|
Plausible cases of herb-drug interactions
include bleeding when warfarin is combined with ginkgo (Ginkgo
biloba), garlic (Allium sativum), dong quai (Angelica sinensis),
or danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza)
Fugh-Berman 2000 |
|
|
|
Cytochrome P-450 metabolism by the liver is
inhibited by glucosinolates & grapefruit, induced by PAH of
broiled/smoked foods, but organo-sulfur compounds in garlic
appear to have essentially no effect on drug metabolism
Wilkinson 1997 |
|
|
|
Antidiabetic, antibiotic, hypocholesterolaemic,
fibrinolytic benefits of onion & garlic but use is limited due
to inhibition of thiol type enzymes
Augusti 1996 |
|
|
|
N-Acetyl-S-allyl-L-cysteine (allylmercapturic
acid, ALMA) in urine @ 0.43 mg, after 200 mg garlic extract,
interferes with detection of occupational exposure to allyl
halides
de Rooij 1996 |
|
|
|
Many therapeutic actions of garlic parallel
physiological effects of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide synthase is
increased by garlic treated platelets & placental villous
tissue, in vitro. Epinephrine & ADP induced platelet aggregation
is inhibited by garlic
Das 1995 |
|
|
|
Decrease in GST and increase in cytochrome b5,
P-450 & malondialdehyde when garlic (20 or 100 mg/kg) was added
to a regimen of betel (0.25%, 0.5%, or 1%) of mice diet
Singh 1995 |
|
|
|
Fungus treatment with amphotericin B is
synergized by garlic extract that contained 34% allicin, 44%
total thiosulfinates, and 20% vinyldithiins
Davis 1994 |
|
|
|
Garlic suppressed premature ventricular
contractions (PVC) & ventricular tachycardia (VT) in ouabain-intoxicated
dogs and ectopic rhythms induced by isoprenaline & aconitine on
electrically driven left rat atria (potentiated with propranolol)
Martin 1994 |
|
|
Contemporary Standardized Methods
|
|
|
Heating, for 60 s but not 30 s, by microwave
oven, decreased the protection provided by garlic against DMBA-induced
adduct formation. Allowing it to stand for 10 min prior to
heating for 60 s restored its anticarcinogenic activity
Song 1999 |
|
|
|
Supercritical fluid extraction and off-line
clean-up for the analysis of organochlorine pesticide residues
in garlic
Wang 1998 |
|
|
|
Review of benefits of aged garlic, which has
less adverse reactions than raw garlic
Sumiyoshi 1997 |
|
|
|
"The long path toward "odorless garlic" "
(German, no abstract)
Koch 1996 |
|
|
|
Radical scavenging by aged garlic extract and
its major components, S-allylcysteine (SAC) and S-allylmercaptocysteine
(SAMC), but not by the water extracts of raw and heat-treated
garlic in microsomes
Imai 1994 |
|
|
|
A simple HPTLC method for simultaneous
determination of allicin & ajoene in garlic preparations reveals
that alliin lyase is inactive below pH 3 so enteric coating is
important
Blania 1991 |
|
|
|
"Boiled garlic and blood fibrinolytic activity "
(no abstract)
Sharma 1975 |
|
|
Analytical Chemistry
|
|
|
Phytoestrogens (genistein, daidzein, biochanin A
& formononetin; coumestrol; matairesinol & secoisolariciresinol)
of 112 foods by HPLC: soy, sprouts, dried fruits, garbanzo
beans, asparagus, garlic & licorice
Horn-Ross 2000 |
|
|
|
2.4 A crystal structure of mannose-specific
agglutinin isolated from garlic. Specificities to glycoproteins
such as GP120 vary considerably
Chandra 1999 |
|
|
|
2.1-A resolution crystal structure of GR
inhibited by (E)-ajoene revealed a mixed disulfide between the
active site Cys58 and the CH2=CH-CH2-SO-CH2-CH=CH-S moiety of
ajoene
Gallwitz 1999 |
|
|
|
Bacteriocin-producing bacteria isolated from
garlic (Leuconostoc mesenteroides) & ginger root (Lactococcus
lactis) are antimicrobial
Janes 1999 |
|
|
|
Alliinase (EC 4.4.1.4) kinetics: Vmax with
L-(+)-alliin=252 mumol min-1 mg-1 and for the isomer, L-(-)-Alliin=54
mumol min-1 mg-1. Km=1.6 mM for L-(+)-alliin & 2.8 mM for L-(-)-alliin
Krest 1999 |
|
|
|
Alliinase (EC 4.4.1.4) converts alliin
[S-(+)-2-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide] to allicin
[(2-propenyl)-2-propenethiosulfinate] when fresh garlic is
crushed or garlic powder is moistened. It is stabilized by NaCl,
sucrose or pyridoxal-5'-phosphate
Krest 1999 |
|
|
|
S-allylcysteine sulfoxide (alliin) was
predominant in 9 samples of garlic according to a GC method for
determination of S-alk(en)ylcysteine sulfoxides
Kubec 1999 |
|
|
|
14,15-epoxide positional analogs of the
hepoxilins formed via the 15-lipoxygenase-induced oxygenation of
arachidonic acid in garlic roots
Reynaud 1999 |
|
|
|
Heat-treated garlic had much less high-molecular
sulfur compounds (HMSC) whereas methyl mercaptan & allyl
mercaptan increased some
Tamaki 1999 |
|
|
|
2-propene-1-sulfinothioic acid S-(Z,E)-1-propenyl
ester, 2-propenesulfinothioic acid S-methyl ester,
methanesulfinothioic acid S-(Z,E)-1-propenyl ester from garlic
extract. Alk(en)yl groups define antimicrobial activity: allyl >
or = methyl > propenyl
Yoshida 1999 |
|
|
|
E-4,5,9-trithiadeca-1,7-diene-9-oxide
(iso-E-10-devinylajoene, iso-E-10-DA), an antimicrobial
organosulfur compound from oil-macerated garlic extract
Yoshida 1999 |
|
|
|
"Fast narrow-bore HPLC-DAD analysis of
biologically active thiosulfinates obtained without solvent from
wild Allium species " (no abstract)
Ferary 1998 |
|
|
|
Sulfoxide determination to 5 mkmol/g by
formation of
bis-2-tryptophanyl-4-dimethylaminophenylcarbinol-blue-violet dye
with 575 nm Abs.max
Kosian 1998 |
|
|
|
A simple & rapid NMR spectrophotometric method
to determine allicin & alliinase activity, based on the reaction
between 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoate (NTB) and allicin
Miron 1998 |
|
|
|
Yayoisaponins A-C (steroidal saponins), dioscin
& aginoside structures were determined. Yayoisaponins A-C &
aginoside are cytotoxic to P388 cells @ 2.1 micrograms/ml, and
antifungal to Mortierella ramanniana @ 10 micrograms/disk
Sata 1998 |
|
|
|
Probing for chemical changes radiation
preservation in garlic, ginger, shiitake, onion, potato,
day-lily, tilapia, silver carp and shrimp
Yang 1998 |
|
|
|
Broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against
gram-positive & gram-negative bacteria and yeasts by
Z-4,5,9-trithiadeca-1,6-diene-9-oxide (Z-10-devinylajoene;
Z-10-DA) from garlic, comparable to Z-ajoene
Yoshida 1998 |
|
|
|
Divinyl ether synthase catalysis of
octadecadienoic to etherolenic acid in garlic
Grechkin 1997 |
|
|
|
The pyridoxal phosphate binding site of the
onion alliin lyase was identified as Lys 285
Kitamura 1997 |
|
|
|
Ajoene, (E, Z) -4, 5, 9-trithiadeca-1, 6,
11-triene 9 oxide, inhibits TNF & lymphocyte proliferation and
inhibits platelet aggregation by inhibiting integrins GPIIb/IIIa
Romano 1997 |
|
|
|
"Recent results in the organosulfur and
organoselenium chemistry of genus Allium and Brassica plants.
Relevance for cancer prevention " (review, no abstract)
Block 1996 |
|
|
|
Protein patterns (SDS-PAGE) of garlic & garlic
products are different from those of other Allium species such
as onion, rakkyo & caucas
Mochizuki 1996 |
|
|
|
"19 new steroidal saponins from Allium plants:
isolation, structural elucidation and effect on blood
coagulability " (no abstract)
Peng 1996 |
|
|
|
Steroidal saponins: proto-iso-eruboside-B,
eruboside-B, iso-eruboside-B, sativioside C and inhibitory
effects on blood coagulability
Peng 1996 |
|
|
|
Alliinase (EC 4.4.1.4) is glycosylated at ASN146
and forms a complex with a garlic mannose-specific lectin
Rabinkov 1995 |
|
|
|
Ajoene, (E,Z)-4,5,9-trithiadodeca-1,6,11-triene
9-oxide, is a potent antiplatelet compound
Apitz-Castro 1994 |
|
|
|
Supercritical fluid chromatography-MS
identification of allicin (2-propene-1-sulfinothioic acid
S-2-propenyl ester) from garlic
Calvey 1994 |
|
|
|
Alliinase (EC 4.4.1.4) is a dimer of two
subunits of MW 51.5 kDa each. Km with S-allylcysteine sulfoxide
is 1.1 mM. It was cloned in Xenopus
Rabinkov 1994 |
|
|
|
Carbohydrate-binding specificity of two
mannose-binding lectins from garlic (Allium sativum) and ramsons
(Allium ursinum)
Kaku 1992 |
|
|
|
Thiosulfinate measurement by HPLC indicates
vinyldithiins & ajoenes were found only in garlic macerated in
vegetable oil; diallyl, methyl allyl, & dimethyl sulfide only in
steam-distilled garlic; garlic powder products varied from
0-100%
Lawson 1991 |
|
|
|
"The chemistry of garlic and onions " (no
abstract)
Block 1985 |
|
|
|
"Enzymatic assay of scordinin as the main tonic
principle active in garlic used in health foods " (no abstract)
Hatanaka 1980 |
|
|
|
Antibacterial activity correlation with alliin
content
Uchida 1975 |
|
|
|
"Purification of the alliin lyase of garlic,
Allium sativum " (no abstract)
Mazelis 1968 |
|
|
|
"A contribution to the analysis of the contents
of garlic--Allium sativum L. I. Thin-layer chromatography of
garlic oil " (no abstract)
Schultz 1965 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pharmacodynamics
|
|
|
Lymphocyte proliferation, interleukin 2 receptor
alpha (IL-2R alpha), IL2 & IL-4 are stimulated by aqueous &
ethanolic extracts from garlic powder
Colic 2000 |
|
|
|
Storage pests, Sitophilus & Tribolium, are
inhibited by diallyl trisulfide, which totally suppressed egg
hatching at 0.32 mg/cm2, and larval & adult emergence at 0.08
mg/cm2
Huang 2000 |
|
|
|
"Ligustrazini, allicin and shear-induced
platelet aggregation " (no abstract)
Liao 2000 |
|
|
|
Cholesterogenesis inhibition by 17 organosulfur
compounds in garlic, especially the water-soluble, S-allyl
cysteine (SAC), S-ethyl cysteine (SEC) & S-propyl cysteine (SPC)
by 42-55% with hepatocytes
Liu 2000 |
|
|
|
Antithrombotic activity of ajoene is associated
with disulfides directly attached to a phenyl ring and is
further enhanced by an alpha-sulfonyl group. Platelet
aggregation is inhibited by CH(3)SO(2)CH(2)SSPh, IC50=5 muM.
MacDonald 2000 |
|
|
|
Membrane permeability of allicin helps explain
the biological activity
Miron 2000 |
|
|
|
Helicobacter pylori inhibition (MIC) by allicin
(6 microg/ml) & diallyl tetrasulfide (3-6 microg/ml) were
greater than diallyl disulfide (100-200 microg/ml)
O'Gara 2000 |
|
|
|
Inhibition of sickle cell clumping by 50%: aged
garlic extract 4.0 mg/mL, black tea extract 0.38 mg/mL, green
tea extract 0.13 mg/mL, Pycnogenol 0.07 mg/mL, a-lipoic acid 930
microM, vitamin E 270 microM, for coenzyme Q 45 microM,
beta-carotene 32 microM
Ohnishi 2000 |
|
|
|
Oxidation of linoleic acid in presence of
soybean lipoxygenase was inhibited dose-dependently by cloves >
cinnamon > pepper > ginger > garlic > mint > onion. A mixture
showed cumulative, synergistic inhibition
Shobana 2000 |
|
|
|
Molluscicides (Polianthes tuberosa,
Trachyspermum ammi, Allium sativum powder; Azadirachta indica
oil; oleoresin of Zingiber officinale) reduce snail reproduction
Singh 2000 |
|
|
|
CYP2B1/2 inhibitors decreased the oxidation of
dipropyl disulfide (DPDS) to dipropyl thiosulfinate (DPDSO).
Microsomes form propylglutathione sulfide- and
propylmercaptan-DPDS, but only the glutathione conjugate of
DPDSO
Teyssier 2000 |
|
|
|
Candida inhibition by 20 household South Indian
medicinal plants compared with garlic
Vaijayanthimala 2000 |
|
|
|
Campylobacter jejuni survival in butter at 5
degrees C was reduced from >13 days to <1 day by addition of
garlic
Zhao 2000 |
|
|
|
Collagen-induced platelet aggregation was
inhibited more by garlic (IC50=6.6 mg/ml) than onion (IC50=90
mg/ml). Boiling reduced the inhibitory effect
Ali 1999 |
|
|
|
Activity against bacteria (many Gram-negative &
Gram-positive, including E. coli), fungi (Candida albicans),
human intestinal protozoa (Entamoeba & Giardia) may be due to
reaction with thiol groups of enzymes
Ankri 1999 |
|
|
|
Of the spices tested only garlic and clove had
antimicrobial activity
Arora 1999 |
|
|
|
Acid production was increased by dairy
thermophilic cultures (Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus) treated with Allium sp., Thymus sp.,
Anhriscus sp. & Ferule sp.
Bakirci 1999 |
|
|
|
The viability, arylamine N-acetyltransferase
(NAT) activity & 2-AAF-DNA adduct formation in human bladder
tumor cells was inhibited by diallyl sulfide (DAS) & diallyl
disulfide (DADS), dose-dependently
Chung 1999 |
|
|
|
Antioxidant and cholesterol benefit of Allium
sp., Labiatae, Umbelliferae, & Zingiberaceae families, as well
as flaxseed, licorice root & green tea
Craig 1999 |
|
|
|
Inhibition of Bacillus subtilis, E. coli & S.
cerevisiae by clove, cinnamon, bishop's weed, chilli, horse
raddish, cumin, tamarind, black cumin, pomegranate seeds,
nutmeg, garlic, onion, tejpat, celery, cambodge for food
preservation
De 1999 |
|
|
|
"Allicin: a possible answer to antibiotic
resistant campylobacter diarrhoeal infection? " (no abstract)
De Wet 1999 |
|
|
|
GST (alpha & mu) & microsomal epoxide hydrolase,
phase II enzymes, are induced by garlic organosulfur compounds,
especially DADS (diallyl disulfide)
Guyonnet 1999 |
|
|
|
Angiogenesis inhibition by selenium may explain
cancer benefit of garlic
Jiang 1999 |
|
|
|
"Effect of garlic on vancomycin-resistant
enterococci " (no abstract)
Jonkers 1999 |
|
|
|
Helicobacter pylori MIC of four garlic sources
was 10-17 g/L. When MIC was based on allicin content, no
differences were found. Combination of garlic & omeprazole gave
a synergic effect
Jonkers 1999 |
|
|
|
Acute otitis media (AOM) are multi-drug
resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae & beta-lactamase producing
Haemophilus & Moraxella that garlic is bactericidal for
Klein 1999 |
|
|
|
Ca2+ release is inhibited by allitridi from
garlic when induced by KCl (IC50=60 microM), glutamate (IC50=70
microM) or norepinephrine (100 microM)
Ma 1999 |
|
|
|
"In vitro inhibition of the growth of
Helicobacter pylori by oil-macerated garlic constituents " (no
abstract)
Ohta 1999 |
|
|
|
Alliin, in vitro, increased pokeweed mitogen
induced cell proliferation, phagocytosis, IL-1B & TNF-a;
decreased Con-A induced cell proliferation & IL-6; while PHA-induced
cell proliferation, IL-2 and superoxide anion was unchanged
Salman 1999 |
|
|
|
E. coli inhibition was greater with powder from
fresh garlic than from old garlic. Activity was resistant to
heat treatment of 100 degrees C for 20 min
Sasaki 1999 |
|
|
|
"Aged garlic extract attenuates the cytotoxicity
of beta-amyloid on undifferentiated PC12 cells " (no abstract)
Selassie 1999 |
|
|
|
Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) induced by
carcinogenic DMBA & BaP was inhibited by diallylsulfide (DAS,
garlic) & indole-3-carbinol (I3C) in mouse skin
Shukla 1999 |
|
|
|
Metabolism of diallyl disulfide to diallyl
thiosulfinate (allicin) in human microsomes follows
Michaelis-Menten kinetics with Km=0.61 mM & Vmax=18.5 nmol/min/mg
protein. Allicin formation correlated with PNP hydroxylase, a
marker of CYP2E1
Teyssier 1999 |
|
|
|
GSH content of liver in rats fed aged garlic
extract at 2 or 10 ml/kg/day increased by 50 or 80%,
respectively; and bromobenzene toxicity to the cells decreased.
P450 was unchanged
Wang 1999 |
|
|
|
Aspergillus inhibition by extracts of garlic,
leek, chive, scallion, onion and shallot increased with acetic
acid and decreased with time and heating
Yin 1999 |
|
|
|
Nuclear factor kappaB (NFkB) is activated and
apoptosis increased by ajoene in human leukemic cells, but not
in peripheral mononuclear blood cells of healthy donors
Dirsch 1998 |
|
|
|
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein &
mRNA expression in ajoene (10 microM) or allicin (50 microM)
treated macrophages were reduced
Dirsch 1998 |
|
|
|
Liver microsomal lipid peroxidation induced by
NADPH, ascorbate & doxorubicin are inhibited by diallyl
disulfide (DADS) whereas DAS, DPS & DPDS were ineffective
Dwivedi 1998 |
|
|
|
Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, E. coli
& Listeria monocytogenes inhibition by garlic
Kumar 1998 |
|
|
|
Clostridium (a foodborne pathogen) is inhibited
by garlic, black pepper, cumin, oregano & bay
Rodriguez-Romo 1998 |
|
|
|
Aspergillus is inhibited better by garlic than
ginger
Yin 1998 |
|
|
|
Cysteine proteinase of Entamoeba histolytica &
alcohol dehydrogenase are strongly inhibited by allicin
Ankri 1997 |
|
|
|
Formation of N-nitrosomorpholine (NMOR), a liver
carcinogen, is reduced by water extracts of garlic or S-allyl
cysteine (SAC), a water-soluble component. mutagenicity of NMOR
in Salmonella is reduced by SAC & diallyl disulfide (DADS)
Dion 1997 |
|
|
|
NF-kappa B activation induced by TNF-alpha &
H2O2 is inhibited by S-allyl cysteine (SAC) in human T
lymphocytes (Jurkat cells)
Geng 1997 |
|
|
|
The negative inotropism of garlic dialysate
increased with calcium @ 0.75 mM but decreased @ 4.5 mM
Martin 1997 |
|
|
|
Neuron branching and survival were increased by
allixin (phytoalexin of garlic) @ 1-100 ng/ml but is cytotoxic @
>1 microgm/ml. 2,6-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one (DHP) is
neurotrophic without cytotoxicity @ 10 microg/ml
Moriguchi 1997 |
|
|
|
Organosulfur compounds in garlic extract
promoted the survival of rat hippocampal neurons in vitro; the
thioallyl group is essential. S-Allyl-L-cysteine (SAC) also
promoted the axonal branching of cultured neurons
Moriguchi 1997 |
|
|
|
Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase
(participates in cholesteryl ester formation) is inhibited &
cholesteryl ester hydrolase (degrades cholesteryl esters) is
stimulated by garlic powder extract in smooth muscle cells
Orekhov 1997 |
|
|
|
Prostate carcinoma cells inhibition by S-allylmercaptocysteine
(50 mg/L) > S-allylcysteine; associated with decreased
putrescine & spermine
Pinto 1997 |
|
|
|
TNF & lymphocyte proliferation are inhibited by
ajoene, (E, Z) -4, 5, 9-trithiadeca-1, 6, 11-triene 9 oxide
Romano 1997 |
|
|
|
G2/M arrest in two erythroleukemia cell lines by
S-allylmercaptocysteine, a stable organosulfur compound of aged
garlic extract
Sigounas 1997 |
|
|
|
Hormone-responsive cancer cell lines of breast &
prostate were inhibited by S-allylmercaptocysteine (SAMC), from
aged garlic extract whereas endothelial cells that had reached
confluence were unaffected
Sigounas 1997 |
|
|
|
MIC to Helicobacter pylori by thiosulfinate was
40 micrograms/ml which may explain lower stomach cancer
incidence in populations with high Allium intake
Sivam 1997 |
|
|
|
4NQO induced oral cancer was reduced by garlic
in rats and related to activation of NK cells, T-lymphocytes &
IL-2
Tang 1997 |
|
|
|
Epimastigotes & amastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi
are inhibited, in vitro, by ajoene, an antiplatelet compound
from garlic
Urbina 1997 |
|
|
|
Vibrio cholerae & Shigella flexneri were highly
susceptible to antibacterial activity of Allium sativum,
Camellia sinensis & Chamaesyce hirta
Vijaya 1997 |
|
|
|
Platelets treated with ajoene had increased
phosphorylation of four proteins (estimated MWs 76, 80, 84 & 120
kDa). Nonselective 'hyperphosphorylation' of many proteins was
seen with 50 microM ajoene
Villar 1997 |
|
|
|
Tumor cell inhibition by allitridi (diallyl
trisulfide) [corrected from allicin in J Cell Biochem
2000;77(S34):125] associated with the cell cycle S/G2M arrest
and induction of apoptosis
Zheng 1997 |
|
|
|
Helicobacter pylori is inhibited by aqueous
garlic extract @ 2-5 mg/ml. Efficacy is reduced by boiling
Cellini 1996 |
|
|
|
Intracellular Ca2+ increase (peak of 732 nM) in
ciliary epithelial cells by allicin, at 0.01 mM & 0.2 mM, which
is prevented by pretreatment with dithiothreitol or ryanodine
Chu 1996 |
|
|
|
The gonotrophic cycle of female Anopheles
mosquitoes was impaired by volatiles of neem, (Azadirachta
indica), reetha, (Sapindus mukorossi) & garlic (Allium sativum),
but not castor seeds & cotton seed oil
Dhar 1996 |
|
|
|
Alliin lacks antioxidative activity in a
linoleic acid oxidation system
Hirata 1996 |
|
|
|
Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus, Mycobacterium,
Streptomyces) was inhibited by ajoene @ 5 micrograms/ml and
Staphylococcus & Lactobacillus @ 20 micrograms/ml. Gram-negative
(E. coli, Klebsiella, Xanthomonas) MICs were 100-160
micrograms/ml
Naganawa 1996 |
|
|
|
"Allium vegetables: their role in the prevention
of cancer " (no abstract)
Wargovich 1996 |
|
|
|
|
|
Review finds beneficial effects of garlic for
hypertension & hyperlipidemia, anti-microbial and
immunostimulating properties, increased fibrinolytic activity,
and favorable effects on platelet aggregation & adhesion
Resch 1995 |
|
|
|
Dermatophytes (Microsporum, Trichophyton &
Epidermophyton floccosum) were inhibited by aqueous extract of
garlic, diluted 1:100, with benefit comparable to ketoconazole @
1-2.5 micrograms/mL
Venugopal 1995 |
|
|
|
"Progress in the prevention and treatment of
ischemic cerebrovascular diseases with garlic extract "
(Chinese, no abstract)
Zhang 1995 |
|
|
|
S-Allylmercaptocysteine inhibits vascular
smooth-muscle & umbilical endothelial cell proliferation and is
two orders more potent than S-allylcysteine. Phosphorylation was
altered for GTP-activating protein, protein tyrosine
phosphatase-1B & p34cdc2
Lee 1994 |
|
|
|
IC50 (micrograms/ml) of diallyl trisulfide for
Trypanosomes 0.8-5.5, for Entamoeba histolytica 59 and for
Giardia lamblia 14. Maximum tolerated concentration for human
fibroblast cells was 25 micrograms/ml
Lun 1994 |
|
|
|
Aorta relaxation by garlic or L-arginine was
attenuated by the removal of endothelium
Ozturk 1994 |
|
|
|
Acetate incorporation into cholesterol and into
fatty acids in liver cells were decreased 37-64% & 28-64%,
respectively by petroleum ether, methanol & water fractions of
garlic
Yeh 1994 |
|
|
|
Prostanoid synthesis and spontaneous rhythmic
contractions of the isolated ureter are inhibited by fresh
garlic in sheep but not boiled garlic
Ali 1993 |
|
|
|
Cytomegalovirus inhibition by garlic extract in
tissue culture
Guo 1993 |
|
|
|
P450 2B1/2 mRNA & protein increased many fold in
hepatocytes treated with diallyl sulfone (DASO2), but only a
slight increase in diallyl sulfide (DAS) treated cells
Pan 1993 |
|
|
|
Ajoene exerts a hyperpolarizing & vasodilating
influence at a concentration which may occur in the
extracellular space by the administration of a single garlic
clove
Siegel 1992 |
|
|
|
"Ajoene antagonizes integrin-dependent processes
in HIV-infected T-lymphoblasts " (no abstract)
Tatarintsev 1992 |
|
|
|
Fusion of H9 cells with HIV-infected H9:RF cells
was inhibited by Ajoene, (E,Z)-4,5,9-trithiadodeca-1,6,11-triene-9-oxide,
IC50=45 microM
Tatarintsev 1992 |
|
|
|
Virucidal activity (in vitro) order generally
was: ajoene > allicin > allyl methyl thiosulfinate > methyl
allyl thiosulfinate
Weber 1992 |
|
|
|
Smooth muscle contractions induced by
norepinephrine, acetylcholine and histamine were inhibited by
garlic juice
Aqel 1991 |
|
|
|
Antithrombotic compounds from plants include
flavonoids & garlic
Beretz 1991 |
|
|
|
Macrophage oxidative burst and T-lymphocyte
blastogenesis were increased by garlic extract
Lau 1991 |
|
|
|
Sodium transport is inhibited in toad skin by
garlic aqueous extract
Norris 1991 |
|
|
|
Human gastric lipase, a sulfhydryl enzyme, is
inhibited by ajoene from ethanolic garlic extracts
Gargouri 1989 |
|
|
|
RNA synthesis inhibition precedes slowed protein
syntheses suggesting that this may be the primary target of
allicin action
Feldberg 1988 |
|
|
|
"Effects of garlic constituents on arachidonate
metabolism " (no abstract)
Wagner 1987 |
|
|
|
"Antiviral properties of garlic: in vitro
effects on influenza B, herpes simplex and coxsackie viruses "
(no abstract)
Tsai 1985 |
|
|
|
"Sensitivity of yeasts isolated from cases of
vaginitis to aqueous extracts of garlic " (no abstract)
Sandhu 1980 |
|
|
Pharmacokinetics (ADME)
|
|
|
Alliin is absorbed & eliminated quickly in rats,
with blood maximum in 10 min and disappearance in 6 h. Allicin &
vinyldithiine were 30-60 and some still present after 72 h.
Elimination is mainly by urine
Lachmann 1994 |
|
|
|
Pharmacokinetics of S-allylcysteine (SAC) in
rats, mice & dogs: SAC was mainly excreted in urine in the
N-acetyl form in rats; however, mice excreted both SAC and the
N-acetyl form
Nagae 1994 |
|
|
Genetics & Molecular Biology
|
|
|
Lipolysis in herby cheeses increased with
increasing garlic, using 0 (as control), 0.5, 1, 2 & 3%
Coskun 2000 |
|
|
|
Decreased cyclin B(1) protein and increased
p34(cdc2) hyperphosphorylation explain G(2)/M phase arrest by
diallyl disulfide (DADS), an oil-soluble allyl sulfur compound
from processed garlic
Knowles 2000 |
|
|
|
Plant-derived molluscicides: Polianthes tuberosa,
Trachyspermum ammi, Allium sativum powder; Azadirachta indica
oil; oleoresin of Zingiber officinale
Singh 2000 |
|
|
|
Homology of Sucrose:sucrose 1-fructosyl
transferase (involved in fructan synthesis) cDNA from Taraxacum
officinale with Cichorium intybus (86%), Cynara scolymus (82%),
Helianthus tuberosus (80%), Allium cepa (46%) & Aspergillus
foetidus (18%)
Van Den Ende 2000 |
|
|
|
Glutathione reductase (human) & trypanothione
reductase (trypanosome) are inhibited by ajoene ((E,Z)-4,5,9-trithiadodeca-1,6,11-triene
9-oxide), from garlic. GR reduces (Z)-ajoene with a kcat/Km of
6.8 x 10(3) M-1 s-1 yielding deoxyajoene
Gallwitz 1999 |
|
|
|
"Garlic breath explained: why brushing your
teeth won't help " (no abstract)
Hasler 1999 |
|
|
|
Allium & brassicas are seleniferous in that they
readily take up inorganic selenium from the soil and
selenium-enriched soils increase their anticarcinogenic
potentials
Irion 1999 |
|
|
|
Well water bioassayed for genotoxicity with
Allium & Tradescantia
Kong 1999 |
|
|
|
Eleven Allium species were classified into five
types, A to E, by chromosomal localizations and distribution
patterns of the 5S rRNA genes
Lee 1999 |
|
|
|
Arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT) in human
colon adenocarcinoma cells is inhibited by diallyl sulfide (DAS)
& diallyl disulfide (DADS), dose-dependently
Chen 1998 |
|
|
|
Interim final rule by the FDA to prohibit the
use on foods of a claim relating to the relationship between
garlic, decreased serum cholesterol, and the risk in adults of
cardiovascular disease
FDA 1998 |
|
|
|
Sulphoxides in garlic increased from 3.03 up to
4.57 mg/g by fertilization with ammonium sulphate @ 75-100 kg
S/ha. Potassium sulphate gave similar results
Kosian 1998 |
|
|
|
Farnesyl protein transferase inhibition by
garlic (diallyl thiosulfinate (allicin), methyl allyl
thiosulfinate, allyl methyl thiosulfinate) and Ganoderma lucidum
(ganoderic acid A & C)
Lee 1998 |
|
|
|
NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO), an enzyme
implicated in the detoxification of activated quinone
metabolites of benzo(a)pyrene, is increased by diallyl disulfide
(DADS) in mice
Singh 1998 |
|
|
|
Recombinant garlic alliin lyase was produced in
Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Pichia pastoris
Weik 1998 |
|
|
|
"Biosynthesis of novel divinyl ether oxylipins
by enzyme from garlic (Allium sativum L.) bulbs " (no abstract)
Grechkin 1997 |
|
|
|
Cyclooxygenase is inhibited by raw garlic but
not by boiled garlic
Ali 1995 |
|
|
|
"Nitric oxide synthase activation is a unique
mechanism of garlic action " (no abstract)
Das 1995 |
|
|
|
Pyrazine-inducible P450-2E1 expression decreased
40% after garlic oil @ 200 mg/kg in rats
Kwak 1995 |
|
|
|
Adenosine deaminase inhibition in aortic
endothelial cells by aqueous extracts of fresh garlic with IC50
= 6-120 micrograms/ml. Dried garlic powder was much less
effective with IC50=2.5 mg/ml
Melzig 1995 |
|
|
|
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase activity increases
dramatically after incubation with allicin
Han 1993 |
|
|
|
A. sativa was more effective than A. ursinum
inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase & cyclooxygenase but there was no
difference with thrombocyte aggregation. ACE inhibition was
greater by A. ursinum leaves
Sendl 1992 |
|
|
|
Garlic-derived diallyl disulfide is the most
effective among the sulfides tested for inhibition of HMG CoA
reductase
Kumar 1991 |
|
|
|
"Effect of garlic oil on incorporation of amino
acids into proteins of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus Say larvae
" (no abstract)
George 1973 |
|
|
|
"Isolation and characterization of larvicidal
principle of garlic " (no abstract)
Amonkar 1971 |
|
|
|
"Mosquito control with active principle of
garlic, Allium sativum " (no abstract)
Amonkar 1970 |
|
|
Animal Studies
|
|
|
Cholesterol, triglyceride & blood pressure were
lowered by Lichtwer garlic powder (1.3% alliin equivalent to
0.6% allicin) in rats fed a 2% high cholesterol diet for 6 weeks
Ali 2000 |
|
|
|
Glutathione increased and lipid peroxidation was
reduced by garlic & neem leaf extracts in MNNG (nitrosoguanidine)-induced
gastric carcinogenesis in rats
Arivazhagan 2000 |
|
|
|
Nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) decreased glutathione
and increased lipid peroxides was countered by 5 day
pretreatment with garlic and neem leaf extracts in rats
Arivazhagan 2000 |
|
|
|
CYP2B and mutagen activation were increased in
microsomes from rats treated with diallyl sulfide (DAS),
dipropyl sulfide (DPS) or dipropyl disulfide (DPDS)
Guyonnet 2000 |
|
|
|
Doxorubicin mortality rate of 58% in mice was
reduced to 30% by S-Allylcysteine, an organosulfur compound from
garlic. Serum creatine phosphokinase was lowered from 5472 to
1923 i.u./L
Mostafa 2000 |
|
|
|
Adriamycin oxidative stress on mice red blood
cells were made smaller by 20 mg/kg garlic: the increase in
malondialdehyde was cut from +105 to +38% and the decrease in
glutathione peroxidase was cut from -24 to -15%
Thabrew 2000 |
|
|
|
Antihypertensive effect maximum is 2-6 h after
administering 0.5 ml of aqueous extract of garlic to rats and
continued for up to 24 h
Al-Qattan 1999 |
|
|
|
DMBA-induced oral carcinogenesis was suppressed
by 250 mg/kg aqueous garlic extract 3 times a week for 14 weeks
in hamsters
Balasenthil 1999 |
|
|
|
Intraocular pressure is reduced 4-6 mmHg by
topical application of garlic-derived compound, S-allylmercaptocysteine
(20, 100, 200 microg) in rabbits
Chu 1999 |
|
|
|
NMU induced tumors were unaffected by 666-2,000
ppm of S-allylcysteine from aged garlic in rats
Cohen 1999 |
|
|
|
Lipid peroxidation decreased along with
increases in catalase, superoxide dismutase & glutathione
peroxidase in rats fed 100 mg garlic or onion oils/kg for 21 d
Helen 1999 |
|
|
|
Methotrexate damage to the small intestine was
reduced by aged garlic extract in rats
Horie 1999 |
|
|
|
Lipid peroxidation is reduced by garlic;
hypercholesterolemia is lowered by garlic, pectin & gemfibrozil;
the aortic wall is most protected by gemfibrozil; in rabbits fed
a 2% cholesterol diet for 28 days
Ismail 1999 |
|
|
|
Aged garlic extract (10 ml/kg, p.o.) prevented
adrenal hypertrophy, hyperglycemia & elevation of corticosterone,
but did not alter serum insulin level in immobilization stressed
mice
Kasuga 1999 |
|
|
|
TNBS induced colitis & increase in NHE-3 protein
were reduced by Garlic in rats
Khan 1999 |
|
|
|
Increases in acetaldehyde & acetate after
ethanol ingestion were diminished by garlic pretreatment in
mice. CYP-2E1 & 1A2 increased and aldehyde dehydrogenase
decreased
Kishimoto 1999 |
|
|
|
Glucose levels and pain response were decreased
by garlic (ethanol extract, 45 mg/kg/d for 28 days) in alloxan
diabetic mice
Kumar 1999 |
|
|
|
Methylmercury (20 mg/kg) embryotoxicity was
reduced by garlic (0.5 or 1.0 g/kg) in rats
Lee 1999 |
|
|
|
Quinone reductase & glutathione transferase
(phase II detoxification enzymes) increased by 0.3 mg/kg/day
diallyl disulfide (DADS) in the gastrointestinal tract (esp.forestomach,
duodenum & jejunum) of rats
Munday 1999 |
|
|
|
Perirenal adipose tissue & epididymal fat pad
were reduced, while mitochondrial protein, uncoupling protein,
urinary noradrenaline & adrenaline excretion were greater in
rats fed garlic powder
Oi 1999 |
|
|
|
Hypolipidemic action of garlic is mainly due to
increased cholesterol degradation to bile acids and neutral
sterols and mobilization of triacyl glycerols. Garlic protein
(500 mg/kg/d) is comparable with gugu-lipid (50 mg/kg/d)
Rajasree 1999 |
|
|
|
Weight gain was reduced by garlic oil (GO) &
diallyl disulfide (DADS). GST was increased by DADS & diallyl
sulfide (DAS). Glutathione peroxidase was inhibited by GO &
DADS. glutathione reductase was stimulated by DADS & DAS
Sheen 1999 |
|
|
|
Efficacy of garlic extract for cryptosporidiosis
in chickens was 24.4% so it is concluded that cannot be
recommended for that
Sreter 1999 |
|
|
|
Acute hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
(high-altitude syndrome) is prevented by 100 mg/kg for 5 days in
rats. Benefit is blocked by NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (a
nitric oxide synthase inhibitor)
Fallon 1998 |
|
|
|
"Anti tubercular activity of garlic oil "
(letter, no abstract)
Jain 1998 |
|
|
|
NDMA suppression of antibody response was
reduced by pretreatment with diallyl sulfide (DAS) in mice. DAS
decreased cytochrome CYP2E1-dependent p-nitrophenol hydroxylase
& NDMA demethylase activities
Jeong 1998 |
|
|
|
Liver catalase decreased, glutathione peroxidase
increased, while GST was unaffected in rats fed garlic 23 weeks.
Azoxymethane induced increase of gamma glutamyl transpeptidase
was prevented
Khanum 1998 |
|
|
|
Cryptosporidium infected calves were not
benefited by allicin
Olson 1998 |
|
|
|
L-NAME induced arterial hypertension in control
rats but not in garlic-fed rats indicating that garlic
antagonizes the inhibitory effect of L-NAME on NO production
Pedraza-Chaverri 1998 |
|
|
|
Garlic (500 mg/kg/d) to alcohol fed rats
increased antiperoxide activity and decreased glutathione
peroxidase & GST compared with Gugulipid (50 mg/kg/d)
Rajasree 1998 |
|
|
|
Tumors were delayed & decreased by diallyl
sulfide (DAS) in a two stage DMBA/TPA initiation-promotion mouse
skin carcinogenesis model
Singh 1998 |
|
|
|
Protection against acetaminophen induced liver
injury in mice by S-Allylmercaptocysteine (100 mg/kg, p.o.) is
related to decrease in plasma alanine aminotransferase &
Cyp2E1-dependent N-nitrosodimethylamine demethylase
Sumioka 1998 |
|
|
|
Acetaminophen (350 mg/kg) induced cataracts were
prevented by diallyl disulfide (DADS) @ 200 mg/kg and N-acetyl
L-cysteine (NAC) @ 500 mg/kg in mice
Zhao 1998 |
|
|
|
Combination of garlic and ginger is more
effective at improving blood glucose and serum lipids than
either alone or placebo in rats
Ahmed 1997 |
|
|
|
Rat life span (days) was controls (434), garlic
0.5% of chow (453), linseed oil 2.5% of chow (470), garlic +
linseed (495). Systolic blood pressure was lowered by the
supplements
Brandle 1997 |
|
|
|
Arsenite-induced chromosomal aberrations were
reduced by aqueous extract of garlic (100 mg/kg b.w.) and
mustard oil (0.643 mg/kg b.w.) in mice
Choudhury 1997 |
|
|
|
Glutathione S-transferase and uridine
5'-diphosphate-glucuronyltransferase doubled while P-450 1A1
(responsible for DMBA activation), 1A2, 2B1, 2E1 & 3A4 were
unchanged in rats fed selenium-enriched garlic for two weeks
Ip 1997 |
|
|
|
Memory retention impairment and cerebrum
shrinkage of Senescence-Accelerated mice were alleviated by aged
garlic extract
Nishiyama 1997 |
|
|
|
Atherosclerotic protection by garlic powder (300
mg twice daily orally to rabbits) was associated with decreased
aortic malondialdehyde & chemiluminescence (marker for
antioxidant reserve) despite unchanged serum cholesterol
Prasad 1997 |
|
|
|
Bladder carcinoma in mice treated with 5 weekly
immunizations of garlic (5 mg, 5 mg, 1 mg, 1 mg & 1 mg;
cumulative dose = 13 mg) had reduced tumor incidence, tumor
growth, & increased survival compared with controls
Riggs 1997 |
|
|
|
Inhibition of mammary DMBA-DNA adducts by
selenite (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg) is enhanced by garlic powder (20
or 40 g/kg diet) in rats
Schaffer 1997 |
|
|
|
Decrease in CYP 2E1 and increase in CYP 2B1,2
and phase II enzyme activities such as GST & UDP-glucuronyl
transferases by garlic compounds in rats
Siess 1997 |
|
|
|
Aflatoxin B1 induced mutagenesis (Salmonella
assay) is inhibited by turmeric, curcumin, asafoetida, BHA, BHT
& ellagic acid. AFB1 induced foci are reduced by dietary
turmeric (0.05%), garlic (0.25%), curcumin & ellagic acid
(0.005% each) in rats
Soni 1997 |
|
|
|
Alloxan diabetes was alleviated almost as much
by S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide from garlic as did glibenclamide &
insulin in rats
Augusti 1996 |
|
|
|
Thromboxane B2 (TXB2) in serum was reduced by a
low dose of aqueous extract of garlic (50 mg/kg) but not by
boiled garlic and onion in rats
Bordia 1996 |
|
|
|
Chromosomal aberrations and damaged cells were
decreased, dose dependently, after a week of fresh garlic (25,
50, 100 mg/kg body weight) to mice
Das 1996 |
|
|
|
Hyperthermia-induced platelet aggregation &
thrombosis were reduced in garlic-treated mice
el-Sabban 1996 |
|
|
|
Radioactive-calcium induced increase in hepatic
total lipids, triglycerides & phospholipids and decrease in free
fatty acids was prevended by garlic oil in mice
Gupta 1996 |
|
|
|
Cancer is reduced in rats as much by 1 month of
Se-garlic immediately after carcinogen as 5 months. Starting 13
weeks after carcinogen gave no benefit. This suggests effect is
on clonal expansion and/or selection of transformed cells
Ip 1996 |
|
|
|
Cell cycle was unaffected by plain garlic
extract whereas Se-garlic extract or Se-methylselenocysteine
resulted in growth inhibition, GI arrest & apoptotic DNA double
strand breaks
Lu 1996 |
|
|
|
Learning deficit and survival were improved by a
diet containing 2% aged garlic extract senescence-accelerated
mice
Moriguchi 1996 |
|
|
|
Trypanosomes in mice were completely suppressed
by 5.0 mg/ml of the oily extract from the pulp and cure was
obtained in 4 days @ 120 mg/kg/d. Activity was in the acetic
acid/methanol fraction
Nok 1996 |
|
|
|
Diuretic-natriuretic effect (dose-dependent) and
gradual decrease in heart rate, but not in arterial blood
pressure, in rabbits given purified fractions of garlic (2, 4 &
6 micrograms/kg dry weight)
Pantoja 1996 |
|
|
|
Immunodetectable CYP2E1 protein levels were
decreased by diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS),
and allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) in rats
Reicks 1996 |
|
|
|
Colon cancer was inhibited by 2.5% garlic diet
in rats; equivalence in humans of 4.76 g/m2 body surface/day
Cheng 1995 |
|
|
|
The tellurium hypothesis for how garlic lowers
lipids
Larner 1995 |
|
|
|
S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide, from garlic, is as
active as gugulipid for hypercholestermia & obesity in
cholesterol fed rats; associated with inhibition of
transaminases, alkaline phosphatase, lipogenic enzymes & HMG CoA
reductase & stimulation of lipolysis
Sheela 1995 |
|
|
|
S-allyl cysteine sulphoxide from garlic reverses
the deleterious effects of cholesterol diet almost as
effectively as gugulipid in rats
Sheela 1995 |
|
|
|
"The effect of topically garlic solution
painting on experimental oral precancer and oral cancer in rats
" (Chinese, no abstract)
Tang 1995 |
|
|
|
Lead concentrations were reduced in muscle and
liver tissues of chickens given both lead and garlic
simultaneously or as a post-treatment
Hanafy 1994 |
|
|
|
DNA adducts caused by N-nitroso compounds
(7-N-mG & 6-O-mG) were reduced 55% in rats fed a diets with 2%
garlic powder
Lin 1994 |
|
|
|
Memory tests with mice were improved when fed a
diet containing 2% aged garlic extract
Moriguchi 1994 |
|
|
|
Malaria parasitemia was suppressed in mice by a
single dose of 50 mg/kg ajoene
(4,5,9-trithiadodeca-1,6,11-triene 9-oxide), and was completely
prevented when chloroquine (4.5 mg/kg) was added
Perez 1994 |
|
|
|
Intraocular pressure is lowered unilaterally in
rabbits by topical allicin (1, 2.5, or 10 micrograms),
topically, but not the precursor, alliin (10 micrograms).
Electrical field stimulated norepinephrine is inhibited by
allicin
Chu 1993 |
|
|
|
Moderate UVB causing a 58% decrease of systemic
contact hypersensitivity is reduced to only 19% in mice fed 4%
garlic extract. 1% aged garlic extract protects mice from
cis-urocanic acid-induced suppression of contact
hypersensitivity
Reeve 1993 |
|
|
|
Copper deficiency signs were reduced in garlic
treated rats
Fields 1992 |
|
|
|
A panel of judges detected garlic odor in
samples of allantoic fluid, fetal blood, and maternal blood
collected 50, 100 & 150 min after the ewe was given garlic and
in samples of amniotic fluid collected 100 min after treatment
Nolte 1992 |
|
|
|
Serum lipids, blood glucose & activities of
serum enzymes decreased in rats by 200 mg/kg S-allyl cysteine
sulphoxide (SACS) a sulphur containing amino acid of garlic, the
precursor of allicin
Sheela 1992 |
|
|
|
Glutathione S-transferase placental form was
enhanced by diallyl sulfide (DS) and reduced by diallyl
disulfide (DDS) in carcinogen treated rats
Takahashi 1992 |
|
|
|
Shigella dysenteriae infected rabbits were cured
within 3 days by garlic or allicin
Chowdhury 1991 |
|
|
|
Garlic & liquorice reduced the hyperphagia &
polydipsia, but not the hyperglycaemia or hypoinsulinaemia in
streptozotocin diabetic mice
Swanston-Flatt 1990 |
|
|
|
Cryptococcosis in mice was reduced but not
eradicated by garlic
Louria 1989 |
|
|
|
Nuclear aberration by cyclophosphamide in
bladder and hair follicles is blocked by diallyl sulfide of
garlic oil in mice
Goldberg 1987 |
|
|
|
"Antihepatotoxic actions of Allium sativum bulbs
" (no abstract)
Hikino 1986 |
|
|
|
"Effect of garlic oil on the pancreas of
experimental diabetes in guineapigs " (no abstract)
Begum 1985 |
|
|
|
"Efficacy of garlic (Allium sativum L.) therapy
against experimental dermatophytosis in rabbits " (no abstract)
Prasad 1982 |
|
|
|
"Hypotensive effect of freeze-dried garlic (Allium
Sativum) sap in dog " (no abstract)
Malik 1981 |
|
|
|
Garlic powder @ 25 mg/kg was more effective in
lowering serum cholesterol & triglycerides than Commiphora mukul
(Guggulu) in dogs & monkeys
Dixit 1980 |
|
|
|
Effects of Garlic, Geranium; Hellebore;
Mistletoe; Olive; Valerian; Hawthorn; Pseucedanum arenarium;
Periwinkle; & Fumitory for hypertension & atherosclerosis.
Petkov 1979 |
|
|
|
"Garlic in stress induced myocardial damage "
(no abstract)
Saxena 1979 |
|
|
|
Hypoglycemic effect of allicin (diallyl
disulphide-oxide) in alloxan diabetic rabbits
Augusti 1975 |
|
|
|
"Studies on the effect of allicin (diallyl
disulphide-oxide) on alloxan diabetes. I. Hypoglycaemic action
and enhancement of serum insulin effect and glycogen synthesis "
(no abstract)
Mathew 1973 |
|
|
|
"Preventive effect of garlic extract against
influenza " (Japanese, no abstract)
Nagai 1973 |
|
|
|
"Effect of fresh garlic extract on tumor growth
" (Japanese, no abstract)
Nakata 1973 |
|
|
|
| HISTORY
OF RECORD |
|
|
| RESEARCHED BY: Soaring
Bear, Ph.D. May 2000 |
| RESEARCH UPDATED BY: Michael
C. Tims, PhD. candidate November 2001 |
|
